Week 8 Reading Summaries

Saam, J., & Nowak, J. A. (2005). The effects of full-day versus half-day kindergarten on the achievement of students with Low/Moderate income status. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 20(1), 27-35. Retrieved from

http://search.proquest.com/docview/203881915?accountid=10910

This comparative study gives us information about how long children ‘should’ spend at kindergarten during the day and how the length of day could have significant results on child achievement levels with different income status. Interviews were conducted and gave the results required to distinguish between what type of program children should be enrolled in when they get to kindergarten age and which program is best suited for children whose families who have an income status that is low to moderate.  The comparison is between spending half a day at school versus spending the full day and which is easier to help in the transition process from home to the school setting.  There are basic requirements that kindergarten educators have to teach children, with constant changes and improvements being made to the program in order to cater for all ability levels. Some results show that attending a full day has no significant benefits for social or some academic levels when compared to half day attendance, whereas some research shares conflicting results that agree with children attending a full day for reasons that are somewhat hard to describe to parents reading the study. There is of course more time in the school day that will encourage children to participate in more activities and as a result practice what they are learning more often. Children are known to exhaust themselves during both programs and show no difference in attention span or interest in learning.  Due to an increased time spent at school during the full day program social relationships are stronger with not only peers but with educators and additional interactions. Within certain subjects that are heavily involved such as mathematics and the arts children thrive on the extra instruction and benefit greatly with higher understanding. The satisfaction felt by students with their efforts and parents with the results achieved through full day programs are better than half days but also increased from results showing a high student attendance.

Milesi, C., & Gamoran, A. (2006). Effects of class size and instruction on kindergarten achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 28(4), 287-313. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/197222121?accountid=10910

Many studies have been performed on class sizes within the kindergarten age groups where benefits are proven for smaller numbers of children promoting higher levels of involvement and results. Within this study it is important to distinguish between the individual student achievements as well as the achievements earned by the whole class. Many of the findings did not provide consistent results causing authors to not only study children’s academic results based on class size but also how class size effects varieties of students groups including race or economic backgrounds. A varied comparison has been made where some academic subjects are not affected or any further understood with a smaller class size with different backgrounds not being related directly to class size. Along with level of communication the skills in giving instructions effectively needs to be leant by educators as this creates higher levels of understanding and achievements. While instructions play a large role in the ability to interpret the information correctly, group size in the classroom does not have any connections to instructions as it is important to have instructions given clearly and at the right level for the individuals in the class. The reduction in class size has become a popular modern day occurrence for many schools within the state with a focus on child progression and schooling costs. Smaller class sizes have an increased fee to cover the cost of employing an educator with qualifications at the same level as surrounding schools. Parents are willing to pay this extra fee due to their children getting a larger portion of the teacher’s attention, focussing more on the individual student and how well they are able to understand the context of the lesson. Class size is the topic of many parents reasoning for sending their children to specific school with clear benefits listed and some with no differences to achievement effects. Smaller classes are becoming increasingly popular as educators can spend more time focussing on the needs of individual students using instructions directed at an appropriate level for all the understand effectively.

Week 7 Reading Summaries

Shrock, P. (1992). Nurturing the unborn child: A nine month program for soothing, stimulating and communicating with your unborn baby. Pre- and Peri-Natal Psychology Journal, 7(1), 85-86. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/198777855?accountid=10910

Studies have proven that communication is a very important technique for bonding with you child and assisting with their growth and development. Young children especially benefit from this type of language connection, including the youngest children of who are not yet born. Research has begun on mothers who have learnt a variety of new methods to communicate with their unborn child through emotional and spiritual connections. Researching these levels of communication has become a common scientific study where parents feel priority is to ‘make a connection’ through the womb and develop an emotional bond with their child. Believed to help in the growth of the unborn and experience an amazing process of response. Using ultrasound the unborn babies are viewed as responding to different communication methods including touch and sounds. Senses have already started to work and can react to movements and emotions felt by the mother that may be as simple at patting her stomach. A recent psychiatrist ‘Thomas Verny’ has completed a book titled “Nurturing the Unborn Child” along with Pamela Weintraub detailing advice in which parents to be can use to develop emotional attachment with their baby during the pregnancy length. During the pregnancy, the foetus may develop certain senses and react to different levels of communication at different ages and growth development. Abilities to communicate with the unborn is part of the advice given along with methods to help parents communicate with each other and become aware of each other’s anxieties and reduce the stress levels to benefit the baby who is able to sense the mothers stress will develop in a calm nature. The pregnancy is divided into months when discussing “Womb Harmonics” with a guided plan for each giving summarized exercises that will teach mothers to relax and produce confidence when communicating their growing unborn child. This is a valuable book for parents who are expecting as they can increase the bond shared between mother and father as well as with their unborn baby using new methods of communication through the womb.

Locuniak, M. N., & Jordan, N. C. (2008). Using kindergarten number sense to predict calculation fluency in second grade. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41(5), 451-9. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/194229399?accountid=10910

Recent studies have shown that the results of numeracy from the kindergarten age group can be used to assist with placement and fluency predication in the later years. A variety of tests were conducted including memory and reading whilst including numeracy as the specific aspect measured. The use of numbers and the connections between the knowledge and combinations related are used heavily to predict how the child with succeed and develop further in the future years of schooling. At this stage there are two categories used being ‘at risk’ or ‘not at risk’ to assess children in fluency and relate their early abilities to encourage and progress in later number skills. Fluency in early childhood is defined as how simple it is for children to interpret and act out the skill with precision. Basic calculation would normally be simple for most children to grasp and take an interest in, however some find it difficult and need different instruction methods to understand the topic. It is important that children understand the basics concepts of math in order to use this fluency to help daily routines and numeracy involved in life. There is a brief summary of the subjects in which children partake in, labeling the areas children will struggle in if they are not able to grasp the concept leading up to it. Fluency in numeracy calculation creates a dependency on other subjects and experiences throughout the schooling career, where children who are able to fully understand the concepts and interpret the skills required had advantages above other children. The subjects are designed to lead on from one another through the years describing the high importance to understand the basics in order to ‘survive’ the coming subjects. Each subheading shares different methods useful to help young children learn, interpret and understand each skill, also including what each skill involves and how they connect to the following topic. The study included 198 young children from various kindergartens under similar math curriculum and created a test for the children in all mathematical concepts. The results were calculated and showed that child fluency was dependent on the exposure levels at an early age. This concluded that children with more mathematical experience did better in the fluency test which in turn will enable children to progress at a faster rate with higher understanding in future mathematical subjects.

Week 6 Reading Summaries

Goldstein, L. S., & Bauml, M. (2012). Supporting children's learning while meeting state standards. YC Young Children, 67(3), 96-103. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1019288593?accountid=10910

Children learn subjects most effectively when they are drawn into each topic with interest and new experiences. Teachers are unable to create individual programs that support the interests of them, rather have a prescribed program dictating the areas that need to be taught within the classroom. In order to provide an adequate learning environment where understanding and progress is paramount it is important for educators to support the children whilst following the standards already set in place. The methods educators use to teach and the level of support provided has changed dramatically since the introduction of state standards in the US. Due to the high demand to ‘follow’ the programs created, educators are concerned about the lack of personal connection with early childhood students, sometimes being unable to teach effectively whilst meeting the individual needs and interests of the children in their care. The article states “asking teachers to stop making decisions about what to teach and how best to teach it is as unrealistic as asking artists to stop choosing which colours to use on their canvas.” The programs defined in modern days are treated merely as guidelines to assist with lesson structure as priority is not how well an educator can ‘follow’ the plan, but is to engage with the children and help them reach their full potential and understand the experiences. Each classroom is individual and has unique ability levels in each, indicating the need for flexibility and modification best suited to the needs of the students and to aid in the progression of their learning. The main methods of altering the program to fit the needs of the students are replacement with something best suited but with the same content, incorporating extra thoughts or using supplementation that will grasp the interest of the children. Children are the main concern when working in education, with their ability and understanding leading the programming. Although educators cannot change the state plan, they can alter them and best adapt the learning to the specific needs to their students.

Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2006). Mathematics in kindergarten. YC Young Children, 61(5), 38-41. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/197600862?accountid=10910

Young children have the beginnings of problem solving and the desire learn more at a very early age and do not have to be taught. This type of inquisitive behaviour comes naturally and if enhanced early and appropriately, taking every opportunity that arises; children can progress at speeds faster than those of students who were not exposed at an early age. Some say that kindergarten is where mathematic concepts should be introduced and children molded to understand new thoughts, however some believe that young children have not got the depth to grasp such difficult numeracy subjects. The article shares that learning potential is the key skill that children already have and learning comes naturally to all children, which offers the kindergarten a head start to mathematics as students begin school already having acquired knowledge from short life experiences. Educators must take every opportunity to fuel their student’s learning by offering a vast array of activities that include all mathematic subject areas. Children incorporate ‘play’ into their daily activities which can be used as the link between ‘interest’ and ‘learning’ which in turn includes math. Simple connections between ordering toys and using directions in the yard use mathematical concepts without the children even being aware of it. This will no doubt spark an interest in numeracy as children will have the knowledge and therefore the confidence to continue and strive to explore new methods of learning. Studies show that children in modern day society are showing greater knowledge in mathematical skills by the time they arrive at school specifically in counting and shape recognition than the curriculum programs assume for children of the same age. Constantly evolving knowledge proves difficult to keep up with making observations quite important to learn the abilities of each child. Educators watch the students grow and develop new skills, keeping an extension program close by to aid in knowledge increase and offering a variety of new lessons to learn where appreciation of mathematics can develop. Starting this process early in kindergartens will help learning and confidence grow faster within children who are included in the topic experiences when compared to those who are not exposed to extra ideas and numeracy subjects.

Week 5 Reading Summaries

Wood, D., & Wood, H. (1997). Communicating with children who are deaf: Pitfalls and possibilities. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, 28(4), 348. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/232584387?accountid=10910

Attempting to communicate with a deaf child can be thought of as near impossible, with many wondering how you can talk to someone who is unable to hear what you are saying or respond to the message you are sending. Many people, who normally have this thought, quickly change their opinion when methods of communication are explored and learnt, in order to better include these children in everyday life. In the educational setting challenges are apparent when children are unable to communicate effectively or understand what is being taught. Social connections and behaviours are stressed as peers of deaf children do not have the abilities to interpret and return the message with understanding, putting strain on relationships and quite often leaving the child quite lonely. Educators of children with hearing impairments have the responsibility to learn and understand different methods of language in order to teach and answer questions for all of their students. Often confusion is seen but this can be improved with a language easily understood however this can only be done face to face, limiting the conversations these children are involved within. A lot of the time the conversations had by deaf students are with teachers on an educational subject indicating that a lot of child talk and imaginative role play are missed due to students not having the ability to ‘sign’. Deaf students in the school environment are guided through the subjects by teachers with the skill to ‘sign’ and often language is ‘controlled’ by perspective and levels of adult communication. This is often negative as children do not get to experience a regular childhood with play and storytelling amongst fellow students, rather only communicating and interacting on an adult level. The article also poses positives that will alter the methods of teaching and assist with management of child communication using different kinds of language other than vocal.

Espada, J. P. (2012). The native language in teaching kindergarten mathematics. Journal of International Education Research, 8(4), 359. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1433384089?accountid=10910

Studies from the Philippines have been researching the benefits to using the native language in the early years compared to English as a second language to teach numeracy. Instructions are fundamental to understanding and developing mathematical concepts and need to be flexible to cater for all ability levels. Using the native language that children hear for the first time is thought to be the fastest developing and therefore has the most benefits when learning a new subject using the ‘mother tongue’. The kindergarten in the study had 34 children participate in a variety of tests using English as the control group and the native Waray language as the experimental group. Assumptions were made, those children who received instructions in their native language were to fair better and have a deeper meaning than those who heard it only in English. Results proved to be in favour of the original assumptions with a significant comparison apparent between the two groups and a higher success rate for the experimental group. Academic quality was high and results have since caused all educators to continue thinking that in order to support and cater for all students’ individual needs, the natural language that children find comforting needs to be used when describing new information for an effective result. Mathematics instruction is difficult to teach to students for multiple reasons, but can be made simpler by steering clear from a foreign language and aiming for a growth in performance. It is said that the best time to introduce new subjects with intense instruction in the student’s native language is during the younger years when children are first starting school. This is a good time as children are still developing their communication skills, and automatically think and respond in the language that comes naturally. Each child is unique and in an island situation, there may be many more languages and dialogues that prevent children from developing social connection due to misunderstanding. Educators need to develop flexibility and judge each scenario accordingly, keeping child benefits and progress in mathematical concepts at the core of their instruction.

Week 4 Reading Summaries

Lee, Cindy,R.N., M.Sc, Walter, Garry, MB BS, BMedSc,PhD., F.R.A.N.Z.C.P., & Cleary, Michelle,R.N., PhD. (2012). Communicating with children with autism spectrum disorder and their families: A practical introduction. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing & Mental Health Services, 50(8), 40-44. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20120703-06

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a birth disability having significant effects on the abilities to communicate and develop social connections with others that they interact with. Difficulties are apparent in multiple areas that consist of intellect and the ability to learn effectively in all areas. It may be hard for parents to grasp the new techniques to cope with their child’s needs but it is equally if not harder for educators to care for children with ASD. Communication is a huge factor that challenges people involved due to child’s attention span being shortened and having differences with their senses. Sciences and studies have stated that with an increase of knowledge and new methods to help understand and communicate with their child will enhance the ability to connect. Unorganized language is most noticeable along with expressions made with facial and body gestures as they are impaired and require skills to translate and understand. Communication is a form of transferring messages to one another where direction is required and followed with interpretation of that message to understand what is being said. Connections between individuals is in direct relation to the ability to communicate and understand one another with a response, most commonly using verbal language but a child with ASD is unable to do so. Children with autism will show communication containing high levels of non-verbal language along many hand gestures, often not showing their feelings or voicing the interactions they need to develop socially. Methods that parents and educators may find useful in helping children with ASD learn and communicate effectively include using patience and commitment to help learn the triggers and observe gestures and their meanings. Having the ability to understand is only apparent when there is commitment and knowledge that fuel connection and interpretation between the relationships. Using language that is spoken in short passages and simple phrases rather than detailed long conversations is noticed to be more beneficial as children with ASD can grasp the concept and follow the thoughts. Learning how to communicate with an autistic child is not only rewarding for the educator but helps the child develop trust and connect with people using communication that does not come naturally for them.

Chard, D. J., Baker, S. K., Clarke, B., Jungjohann, K., Davis, K., & Smolkowski, K. (2008). PREVENTING EARLY MATHEMATICS DIFFICULTIES: THE FEASIBILITY OF A RIGOROUS KINDERGARTEN MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM. Learning Disability Quarterly, 31(1), 11-20. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/233087514?accountid=10910

Success rates of subjects in schools are of most concern in the education setting particularly for mathematics subjects. Reasons for low grades are defined as possible distractions when key information is being spoken along with possibilities to learn ‘more’ at a younger age was missed. Some children, although they ‘heard’ the information may not have fully grasped or understood the concept behind what they were learning indicating that educators need to be aware of individual students within their class and alter the program to suit their needs. Mathematics education is being encouraged to start as early as the kindergarten setting to focus on early development of concepts involved when the mind is eager to learn more and can understand at a fast pace. Children require understanding in mathematical subjects to create a successful and progressive society. The ability levels around United States schools cause concern when compared to the average National levels, with many different impairments and backgrounds being attributed to this cause. Children in the early education setting are encouraged now to ‘think’ mathematically and use these thoughts to help them ‘learn’ in order to turn the results into positive understanding. Overcoming obstacles are needed to change the result statistics, including teachers that have not correctly prepared their lesson to fit the needs of their students or followed the guide lines described within the standards will need to change how the class is conducted. Due to the age levels of the children, high expectations are not made and quite often subject interpretation is dependent on the quality and consistency of instructions given. Early Leaning in Mathematics (ELM) Program has been designed to enhance student learning and development with number sense at the kindergarten age level where they already showing signs of using mathematical concepts. This program also helps the educators learn how to effectively teach young children a potentially daunting subject.

Week 3 Reading Summaries

Van Kraayenoord. C E; Elkins. J, (2004). Learning Difficulties in Numeracy in Australia, The Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 32-41.

As children grow, numeracy proves to be equally as important as literacy instruction in order to function and contribute to the world around us. Numeracy is thought of as harder to instruct due to the constantly evolving techniques related to it however there are methods that include the fundamental subjects for children to grasp the concept of numeracy. Learning difficulties offer another challenge and this article provides techniques available to best support these students both for parents as well as educators. The knowledge that is required to assess each situation and develop a progressive curriculum to include all students is based around the use of outcome frameworks.

Outcomes within the curriculum propose different strands that act as goals for teachers to strive for in their classroom and support the children where necessary. The different strands also provide variety in order to excite the students into numeric enjoyment while helping children understand the different concepts and methods for resolving the puzzle. Numeracy is present in everyday activities and it is important the educators make children aware of this so as to apply their knowledge to different situations and extend themselves further in daily routines. The results of the outcome material assist with knowing where to improve upon in the classroom curriculum and the methods that suit each individual student successfully.

Some teachers use a dominant approach to pass on their knowledge and information where concepts are a high priority to teach over procedures. Solving the activities is encouraged and the understanding of the problem is enhanced by actual assistance from the teacher whilst being connected to real life activities. Within these assisted lessons, learning difficulties are being noticed and supported at a growing rate with student goals encouraged to include forms of numeracy. The curriculum is flexible enough to change the methods of learning in order to fit the abilities of all students learning at different rates. Meaning and understanding is the highest priority for educators to teach within their centres as students will learn to recognize the connections between concept and procedure.

Kovach, B., & Da Ros-Voseles, D. (2011). Communicating with babies. YC Young Children, 66(2), 48-50. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/874262859?accountid=10910

Babies are valuable members of society and communication with them are very important for their social and physical development. The value of talking to young babies is often unnoticed by adults in all fields including parents and educators as language hasn't developed and other methods are not explored. Without communication, babies will become unaware of their surroundings and feel unimportant in the childcare centre. Babies view their opinions and emotions through methods of communicating, for babies this is forms of sounds and chatting not understood as English but nonetheless a form of connecting and passing on information. Using a form of conversation with young children with not only model communication for them to learn but also off a place to practice and develop social interaction. Different goals are advised to enhance talking with babies where acknowledgement is high priority and respect for the child’s presence decides on when and how you communicate with a child. Ignoring children and talking in front of them as though they are not there is quite demeaning and impersonal, leading to a decrease in self-worth. They are individuals and have the right to be treated accordingly rather than forgotten about. Talking to babies may seem awkward at first due to an attitude that English language is the only method of communication. This is not the case as babies have their own language used to pass messages and voice emotions and thoughts. Different gestures form most of the ‘talk’ which need to be carefully studied due to being visual. Sounds and babble form the rest of the baby ‘talk’ in which adults need listening skills to hear information as opposed to only voicing their opinions. Babies have a great influence on adult development in many different forms as communicating with them not only benefits the child but also changes the attitude of the educators.

Week 2 Reading Summaries

Pasnak, R., Monica, S.G., Ferguson, E.O. & Levit, K. 2006, "Applying Principles of Development to Help At-Risk Preschoolers Develop Numeracy", The Journal of psychology, vol. 140, no. 2, pp. 155-73.

Numeracy is necessary for all children to learn, and will improve skills to solve many problems that arise in the classroom. There are different tests created and curriculum activities provided that caters for all levels of ability. Children of a more advanced level find the basic numeracy program easy to understand and pick up new tasks, while some children struggle to understand the new concepts and find it difficult to connect the skill to the definition.

This article discusses a test created to help children develop numeracy from the ‘at-risk’ category into a positive and improved ability. Each of the children from the Head Start childcare was given an extra piece of skill learning for 10 minutes with outstanding results. The experiment was conducted to see if the addition of this extracurricular activity in preschools would improve numeracy levels in all children and how different these results were specific to numeracy learning.

Results from this test were measured by primarily cognitive actions as opposed to verbal or quantifying results, due to the test subjects being young children. Two varied forms of tests were created and studied as ‘learning to learn’ and the second was to pick abilities that focused primarily on reasoning as this is high priority when entering early childhood centres. Every small piece of learning even occupying such a short amount of time will benefit children’s understanding and ability to grasp more information. Skills will improve and knowledge will grow with the exposure to new ideas and methods to learn. Children act as sponges and require new knowledge in order to learn more, so the best way to provide new knowledge is to offer tests and activities where children can educate themselves and learn.

Barratt-Pugh, C. Literacy learning in the early years: socio-cultural context of literacy learning. Buckingham [England] ; Philadelphia : Open University Press, 2000 Chapter 1, pp. 1-26

This article places the numeracy under the title of literacy along with reading and writing; claiming that the methods used to teach these subjects has changed dramatically over the time of schools evolving. Methods used to teach literacy in early schools have progressed to four different perspectives that have high correspondence to the society in which we live and relate our past beliefs to the current and new knowledge we are learning. Individual experiences all contribute to the rate at which we understand literacy education as well as the impact we have when we are teaching it as parents or teachers.

Maturational

The theorist Gesell said in 1954 that children would only have the developmental maturity to learn to read once they have reached a specific age mentally. This age is generally school age students after they have completed a series of tests to prove whether they were ‘ready’ or not to receive an official education. They say the official education only began when the child reached school and parents did not have any role in helping or preparing any knowledge of reading or writing beforehand, with children effectively starting with a clean slate and no influences.

Developmental

This theory agrees with children entering school when they are mentally ‘ready’ for formal education and as described by Thorndike the process of being mentally ready can have small influences from home to help assist and prepare the children for the things they will learn. The kindergarten has a higher responsibility in creating specific programs to assist the students in preparing themselves for a confident learning environment where they have started to learn the basics of reading and writing. The schools have not yet given the parents the role of teaching their children but have given the kindergartens and pre education institutes the role of using workbooks and basic instructions to aid in a faster understanding of basic literacy.

Emergent

Piaget convinces us that numeracy and literacy are not only subjects that need to be taught specifically but basic skills learnt at an early age and continues throughout life. The child is an active member of this learning and best learns when immersed in an environment of constant activity. This occurs for most children, indicating that most children have access and will learn a variety of routines using literacy and numeracy subjects that are intertwined and connected in experiences from the family life. All people involved in the child’s life will play a role in creating and defining the beginning processes of learning. Learning rich environments will need to have high levels of written text and different forms of language in order to maintain a high level of curiosity and integrate all forms of “reading, writing, speaking and listening.”

The method of teaching children authentic language with specific skills in reading and writing is labelled as the ‘whole language’ approach to understanding how children learn and make decisions. The opposite method titled ‘process writing’ encourages children to be in charge of their own learning and make decisions based around the understanding of spelling.

Socio-cultural

This theory followed on from Piaget’s emergent views and was developed by Bourdieu claiming it to be a “cultural capital” which is education that can be enhanced into knowledge and succession. This method was thought to assist children through their schooling to heighten each of their progress, measured by wealth and status. Literacy comes in many different forms as we have already discussed and is unanimous amongst the different theories; however it is said to have many different methods of teaching and learning these literacy skills. The different forms of literacy across a child’s lifetime come in two categories being the small skills that parents value, whilst schools think are insignificant and the skills that schools teach and class as important values for life lessons. Within the school environment competition levels between students are high, as knowledge about language can alter amongst schools and progress levels are varied between lower socio economic schools and formal teaching spaces.

The following table shares a condensed version of these four perspectives and theorists views on the comparisons between how literacy is perceived in schools. All agree that literacy is important in a child’s growth but each have their positives and negatives on methods of teaching literacy to the early age levels. Constant expansion and improvements in not only the methods of teaching but the child’s basic skill level from the home environment with technology on the rise. Social and cultural contexts are varied greatly but have the same end goal of teaching children reading and writing that they will use to expand their horizons and become educationally successful in language.

Table 1: Four perspectives on early literacy